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1831 CE

This year falls in the Age of revolutions and empire (1789–1914). Revolutions in France, Haiti and Latin America overturn old regimes, and industry, beginning in Britain, changes work, cities and war. European powers and the United States expand their reach, and by 1914 much of Africa and Asia is under colonial rule.

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Within fifteen years

Country · BelgiumBelgium1830–Belgium is a small country in western Europe, independent since 1830. Brussels, its capital, hosts the headquarters of the European Union and NATO. It is a federal monarchy divided between Dutch speaking Flanders and French speaking Wallonia.
Country · EcuadorEcuador1830–Ecuador is a small country on the Pacific coast of South America, named for the equator. It left Simón Bolívar's Gran Colombia in 1830. It is a presidential republic that includes the Galápagos Islands.
Country · GreeceGreece1830–Greece is a Balkan country of peninsulas and islands, heir to the ancient Greek world. It won independence from the Ottoman Empire in a war that began in 1821. The modern state is a parliamentary republic.
Country · VenezuelaVenezuela1830–Venezuela is a country on the northern coast of South America, sitting on some of the world's largest oil reserves. It left Simón Bolívar's Gran Colombia in 1830. Mismanagement under Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro collapsed its economy.
Country · UruguayUruguay1828–Uruguay is a small country between Argentina and Brazil on the Atlantic. It became independent in 1828 as a buffer between its great neighbors. It is a presidential republic and one of Latin America's steadiest democracies.
Country · BoliviaBolivia1825–Bolivia is a landlocked country in central South America, named for Simón Bolívar. It declared independence from Spain in 1825. Its silver mines once funded the Spanish Empire; it is now a presidential republic.
Country · NicaraguaNicaragua1838–Nicaragua is the largest country in Central America. It left the Central American federation in 1838. The Somoza dictatorship, the Sandinista revolution, and the Contra war shaped it; Daniel Ortega rules again as an autocrat.
Country · LuxembourgLuxembourg1839–Luxembourg is a small landlocked country between France, Germany, and Belgium. It became fully independent in 1839. It is a constitutional monarchy and one of the founding members of the European Union.
Country · BrazilBrazil1822–Brazil is the largest country in South America, covering half the continent. Portugal claimed it in 1500; it became an independent empire in 1822 and a republic in 1889. It is a federal presidential republic.
Country · Costa RicaCosta Rica1821–Costa Rica is a small Central American country between Nicaragua and Panama. It became independent from Spain in 1821. It abolished its army in 1948 and is one of Latin America's steadiest democracies.
Country · El SalvadorEl Salvador1841–El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America, on the Pacific coast. It became fully independent in 1841 after the Central American federation broke up. A civil war from 1979 to 1992 killed about 75,000 people.
Philosopher · Age of revolutions · FranceGustave Le Bon1841–1931French physician and publicist. Psychologie des foules (1895) described crowd suggestion, prestige and repetition. His racial hierarchies and brain-volume claims have been repudiated.
Country · HondurasHonduras1841–Honduras is a Central American country on the Caribbean. It became fully independent in 1841. American fruit companies dominated it as a banana republic; it is now a presidential republic.
Country · MexicoMexico1821–Mexico is a large country in southern North America, heir to the Aztec and Maya worlds. It won independence from Spain in 1821. It is a federal presidential republic and the largest Spanish speaking country.
Country · PeruPeru1821–Peru is a large country on the Pacific coast of South America, heartland of the Inca Empire. It declared independence from Spain in 1821. It is a presidential republic.
Country · ColombiaColombia1819–Colombia is a large country in northwestern South America, named for Christopher Columbus. Simón Bolívar freed it from Spain in 1819. It is a presidential republic that has fought a long internal conflict.
Ruler · Age of revolutions and empire · United KingdomVictoria1819–1901Queen of the United Kingdom from 1837 to 1901, born in 1819, whose sixty three year reign gave its name to an age. The British Empire reached its greatest extent under her, and she was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876. Her long mourning for Prince Albert made the monarchy a symbol of duty and empire.
Country · ChileChile1818–Chile is a long, narrow country between the Andes and the Pacific. Bernardo O'Higgins declared independence from Spain in 1818. It is a presidential republic, now among South America's most stable states.
Country · Dominican RepublicDominican Republic1844–The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two thirds of Hispaniola, the island where Columbus landed. It declared independence from Haiti in 1844. It is a presidential republic and the Caribbean's largest economy.
Philosopher · Age of revolutions and empire · GermanyFriedrich Nietzsche1844–1900German thinker who announced the death of God and demanded a revaluation of all values. Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Beyond Good and Evil, and the Genealogy of Morals made him philosophy's great stylist and destroyer. He collapsed in 1889 and lived 1844 to 1900.
Philosopher · Age of revolutions and empire · GermanyKarl Marx1818–1883German thinker who turned Hegel's dialectic into historical materialism: class struggle drives history, and capitalism digs its own grave. The Communist Manifesto of 1848 and Capital of 1867 made him the most politically consequential philosopher of modern times. He lived 1818 to 1883, mostly in London exile.
Country · ArgentinaArgentina1816–Argentina is a large country in southern South America, stretching from the Andes to the Atlantic. It declared independence from Spain in 1816. It is a federal presidential republic known for tango, beef, and football.